What is Uniformitarianism?

Answer:

Number of atoms= [tex]1.004\times 10^{23}[/tex] atoms

Explanation:

1 mole is the mass of substance which contain [tex]6.022\times 10^{23}[/tex]

particles of that substance.Its symbol is 'n'.

Here the quantity[tex]6.022\times 10^{23}[/tex] is called Avogadro number and it is denoted by [tex]N_{0}[/tex].

Mass of the substance in grams is called is molar mass.It is denoted by'M'

Moles can be calculated by :

1) [tex]n=\frac{given\ mass}{molar\ mass}=\frac{w}{M}[/tex]

2)[tex]n=\frac{Number\ of\ particles}{Avogadro\ number}=\frac{N}{N_{0}}

[/tex]

compare 1) and 2) formula, we get

[tex]\frac{N}{N_{0}=\frac{w}{M}[tex].................(i)

For silver (Ag), M=107.86 g

w=18 g  (given) and [tex]{N_{0}=6.022\times 10^{23}[/tex]

Put the values of w,M and [tex]{N_{0}[tex] in equation (i) and solve for N

[tex]\frac{N}{6.022\times 10^{23}}=\frac{18}{107.86}[/tex]

[tex]N=\frac{18}{107.86}\times 6.022\times 10^{23}[/tex]

[tex]N= 1.004\times 10^{23}[tex]

Hence Number of atoms of silver= [tex]1.004\times 10^{23}[/tex] atoms

Answer:

Enthaply

Explanation:

The Energy involved in a chemical reaction is the difference in the amounts of stored chemical energy between the products and the reactants. This stored chemical energy, or heat content, of the system is known as its enthalpy.

Answer:

The types of energy in chemical reactions are as follows: internal energy, enthalpy

Explanation:

The internal energy is the sum of all the energies, it is due to the positions and movements of the subatomic particles, atoms and molecules that constitute it, as well as to the unions between the atoms. In chemical reactions there is a variation in the internal energy of substances, classified as exothermic if they release energy in the form of heat, endothermic if they absorb energy in the form of heat.

On the other hand, the enthalpy of reaction is the heat absorbed or released in a chemical reaction at a constant pressure. It is defined as the subtraction between the sum of the enthalpies of the products and the sum of the enthalpies of the reagents.

Answer:

298 kPa

Explanation:

Data Given:

initial Volume of oxygen V1= 48.0 L

Final Volume of oxygen V2= 16.0 L

initial pressure of oxygen P1= 99.3 kPa

initial Pressure of oxygen P2= ?

Solution:

The Boyle's law formula will be applicable here at constant temperature

Boyle's law formula

                  P1V1 = P2V2

As we have to find final pressure so rearrange the equation

                 P2 = P1V1 /V2 ....................(1)

Put values in Equation 1

                  P2 = 99.3 kPa x 48 L /16 L

                  P2 = 298 kPa

So the final pressure will be 298 kPa

Answer:

b.Electrons are shared between two atoms.

Answer:

3.481 x 10²⁴ atoms

Explanation:

Data Given:

Number of moles of NH₄NO₃ = 5.78 mol

Number of atoms of NH₄NO₃ = ?

Solution:

Formula used

                  no. of moles = no. of atoms / Avogadro's number

As we have to find no. of atoms

So, we have to rearrange the above equation

                  no. of atoms = no. of moles x Avogadro's number . . . . . (1)

Where

Avogadro's number = 6.022 x 10²³ atoms

Put values in above Equation 1

                      no. of atoms = 5.78 mol x 6.022 x 10²³ atoms/mol

                      no. of atoms = 3.481 x 10²⁴ mol

So,

no. of atoms in 5.78 mole NH₄NO₃ = 3.481 x 10²⁴ atoms

Answer:

The answer is 3.48 × 10²⁴

Explanation:

Avogadro's constant/number is used to get the actual number of particles (atoms or ions) in a molecule of a substance.

Avogadro's number is 6.022 × 10²³

To get the actual number of atoms in a substance: avogadro's constant is multiplied by the number of moles of the substance

Hence,

number of atoms = 5.78 × 6.022 × 10²³

number of atoms in 5.78 moles of NH₄NO₃ = 3.48 × 10²⁴

Answer:

2. Ne  

Explanation:

Neon is an element. You cannot break down an element by chemical means.

1, 3, and 4 are wrong. They are all compounds, and compounds can be broken down by chemical means.

Neon will not break down due to a chemical change, therefore option (a) is correct .

A chemical change is the change of one material into another, resulting in new materials with different properties .

Properties of chemical change -:

Some examples of chemical change are-

Neon will not break down due to a chemical change, hence option (a) is correct .

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The variance in snow coverage on roofs can be attributed to differences in insulation quality and roof material albedo, with well-insulated and darker roofs more likely to have less snow. Highly efficient insulation in some Northern European homes ensures warmth even when unoccupied.

The observation that some roofs still have snow on them while others do not, despite receiving the same amount of sunlight, can be explained by differences in thermal energy and insulation. Roofs with better insulation retain heat within the home more efficiently, preventing the snow from melting as quickly. On the other hand, roofs with poor insulation allow more heat to escape, which contributes to the snow melting faster. Additionally, the albedo of the roof material could impact snow retention, with darker materials absorbing more heat and potentially melting snow quicker than lighter materials that reflect more sunlight.

In the case of Northern European homes that remain warm without heating systems, the explanation lies in highly efficient insulation that minimizes heat loss. This robust insulation keeps the internal temperature stable, even in the absence of residents to produce body heat. Thus, when the homes are unoccupied, they can still maintain warmth due to the lack of heat exchange with the colder outside environment.

Answer:3 check and replenish emergency supplies

Explanation: This one is the only one that is not counter intuitive.

Answer is C. 2-Pentene.

Answer:

C

Explanation:

This has diagonal lines, which indicates that it’s C.

Answer:

Explanation:

Barium sulfate (or sulphate) is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula BaSO4. It is a white crystalline solid that is odorless and insoluble in water. It occurs as the mineral barite, which is the main commercial source of barium and materials prepared from it.

Answer:

The barium

Explanation:

Barium is an alkaline earth metal that has toxic properties. It is the alkaline used in the composition of barium sulfate which is used as a contrast in stomach and intestine radiographs. This procedure presents no danger, as this sulfide is insoluble, that is, it will not be absorbed by the stomach.

Barium is a toxic chemical element, silvery in appearance, with a high melting point, which can be found in the mineral barite, not being found free in nature, due to its high reactivity.

Answer:

2 C6H14 + 19 O2 = 12 CO2 + 14 H2O

Explanation:

Final answer:

The combustion of hexane (C6H14) is balanced by setting appropriate coefficients for CO2 and H2O to match the number of C and H atoms and then adjusting the O2 to balance the oxygen atoms, resulting in a balanced equation with equal numbers of each atom on both reactant and product sides.

Explanation:

To balance the chemical equation for the combustion of hexane (C6H14), we must ensure that the number of atoms for each element is the same on both the reactant and product sides. Given the unbalanced equation C6H14(g) + O2(g) → H2O(g) + CO2(g), we balance it step by step.

First, balance the carbon (C) atoms by setting the coefficient for CO2 equal to the number of C atoms in C6H14:

C6H14(g) + O2(g) → H2O(g) + 6CO2(g)

Next, balance the hydrogen (H) atoms by setting the coefficient for H2O equal to half the number of H atoms in C6H14:

C6H14(g) + O2(g) → 7H2O(g) + 6CO2(g)

Finally, count the number of oxygen (O) atoms in the products (6*2 for CO2 and 7 for H2O equals 19 O atoms) and balance it with the oxygen molecules (O2) in the reactants:

2C6H14(g) + 19O2(g) → 14H2O(g) + 12CO2(g)

This yields a balanced equation with 12 carbon atoms, 28 hydrogen atoms, and 38 oxygen atoms on each side.

Check your work to confirm that all atoms balance and that there are no fractional coefficients. The equation is now balanced.

Answer:

This is because of Newton's third Law of motion :

For every action there is equal and opposite reaction .

Explanation:

When air is squeezed out from the balloon , the potential energy (Shape of balloon) is converted into Kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is possessed  by fast moving air particles coming out from balloon.These air particles are pushed backward,so according to Newtons third law , the balloon should fly upward.

[tex]F_{AB} = - F_{BA}[/tex]

Answer:

According to Newton’s third law of motion, the balloon is pushed forward as the air is forced out.

Explanation:

Action, Reaction

Answer:

option a) 3 g

Explanation:

mass of Glucose = 5 g

Mass of H₂O = ?

Reaction Given:

                   6CO₂ + 6H₂O ----> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Solution:

First we have to find mass of glucose from balanced reaction.

So,

Look at the reaction

                        6CO₂ + 6H₂O -------> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

                                     6 mol               1 mol

As 6 mole of water (H₂O) give 1 mole of Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆ )

Convert moles to mass

molar mass of C₆H₁₂O₆  = 6(12) + 12(1) + 6(16)

molar mass of C₆H₁₂O₆  = 72 + 12 + 96

molar mass of C₆H₁₂O₆= 180 g/mol

molar mass of H₂O = 2(1) + 16 = 18 g/mol

Now

             6CO₂      +  6H₂O          --------->     C₆H₁₂O₆   +    6O₂

                              6 mol (18 g/mol)           1 mol (180 g/mol)

                                  108 g                            180 g

108 g of water (H₂O) produce 180 g of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)

So

if 108 g of water (H₂O) produce 180 g of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) so how many grams of water (H₂O) will be required to produce 5 g of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆).

Apply Unity Formula

               108 g of water (H₂O) ≅ 180 g of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)

                X g of water (H₂O) ≅ 5 g of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)

Do cross multiply

                     mass of water (H₂O) = 108 g x 5 g / 180 g

                     mass of water (H₂O) = 3 g

So 3 g of water is required to produce 5 g of glucose.  

Answer:

b. 0,99atm

c. Answer is in the explanation

d. Answer is in the explanation

Explanation:

b. Using Gay-Lussac's law:

P₁T₂ = P₂T₁

P₁: 0,70 atm; T₂: 425K; P₂: ??; T₁: 299K

0,70atm×425K / 299K = 0,99 atm

c. Using kinetic molecular theory, the increasing of temperature increases the kinetic energy of gas particles and if kinetic energy increases, the pressure increases. That means the increasing of temperature increases the pressure in the system.

d. Now, the increases in kinetic energy of gases increase the collisions betwen particles. As these intermolecular forces that are not taken into account in ideal gas law, the observed pressure will be different to the pressure predicted by ideal gas law.

I hope it helps!

The pressure of the gas increases from 0.70 atm to 0.99 atm as the temperature is increased. The interaction of the gas molecules causes the pressure of the gas to deviate from the predicted value.

From the information in the question;

Initial temperature(T1) =  299 K

Initial pressure (P1) = 0.70 atm

Final pressure (P2) = ?

Final temperature (T2) = 425 K

Given that;

P1/T1 = P2/T2

P1T2 = P2T1

P2 = P1T2/T1

P2 = 0.70 atm × 425 K/ 299 K

P2 = 0.99 atm

In terms of the kinetic molecular theory, we know that the pressure of a gas has to do with its bombardment of the walls of the container. When the temperature of the gas is increased, the gas molecules become more energetic and bombard the walls of the container more frequently hence the pressure of the gas increases.

The particles of an ideal gas do not to interact with each other according to theory. However, real gases molecules interact with each other. Hence, actual pressure of the CO2(g) in the container at 425 K is less than the pressure predicted by the ideal gas law. More significant particle interaction decreases the pressure of the gas compared the value predicted based on the ideal gas law.

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Answer: I think it’s C

Explanation:

Answer:

Good conductor

Explanation:

Metals form metallic bonds. They are also sometimes called 'a sea of electrons'. Basically, metal cations are surrounded by a sea of closely packed valence electrons. This close packing lets the particles of a metal interact much more efficiently and transfer heat or electric current efficiently. The valence electrons and metals ions are also moving to some extent, so besides being packed efficiently, they can also interact and collide to transfer electricity and heat.

This makes metals good heat and electric conductors.

The property of metals that is due to the delocalized electrons is good conductor. The correct option is D.

Metals possess the property of being good conductors of electricity and heat, which is primarily due to the presence of delocalized electrons. Delocalized electrons are loosely bound and can move freely throughout the metal lattice. When a potential difference is applied, these mobile electrons can easily flow, carrying electric current with minimal resistance.

This property makes metals invaluable in electrical applications, such as wiring and electronic components. Additionally, the delocalized electrons are responsible for metals' high thermal conductivity, allowing them to efficiently transfer heat. However, this delocalization of electrons also leads to metals having a lustrous appearance (not dull), and they are generally malleable and ductile rather than brittle. Therefore, the correct answer is D. good conductor.

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Answer:

[tex]Pd^{2+}[/tex] is the strongest oxidizing agent .

Explanation:

It is said in the question that given reactions are spontaneous.

As [tex]Np^{3+}[/tex] oxidizes Ce to  [tex]Ce^{3+}[/tex] we can say that  [tex]Np^{3+}[/tex] is a stronger oxidizing agent than  [tex]Ce^{3+}[/tex].

Similarly , [tex]Cd^{2+}[/tex] is stronger than  [tex]Np^{3+}[/tex] (from first reaction).

From second reaction we can see that  [tex]Pd^{2+}[/tex] is stronger than  [tex]Cd^{2+}[/tex].

The order of oxidizing strength is  [tex]Pd^{2+}[/tex] >  [tex]Cd^{2+}[/tex] >  [tex]Np^{3+}[/tex] >  [tex]Ce^{3+}[/tex] .

Answer:

the Melting point is 621.5 F or it can be 327.5 C

hope it right

Answer:

If atoms  lose energy during a change of state, they are pulled together by attractive forces and become more organized.

Explanation:

Change of state is the process by which substances pass from one state of agregation to another. The aggregation states are solid, liquid and gas. This state of aggregation depends on the cohesion forces that hold the particles together.

The change of state of substances consists of an exchange of energy.  If it occurs when the body or system gives energy to the environment, the changes in state that occur are:

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules. In the solid state, the intermolecular forces are relatively intense. In this case the molecules occupy a rigid position and have virtually no freedom to move. They only vibrate around the equilibrium positions. In the liquid state the intermolecular forces are not as strong as in the solid state, therefore, the particles have a certain freedom of movement. Liquids do not have a definite form, but take the form of the container that contains them. The molecules have limited movements of rotation, vibration and translation. Finally, in the gaseous state, the intermolecular forces between the particles are very weak, generating the particles great mobility. These particles tend to be great distances between them and there is no appreciable interaction between them.

Then it is possible to say that the intermolecular forces of attraction become stronger than before and become more organized and stable when the changes in the state of solidification, condensation and inverse sublimation occur.

Finally, If atoms  lose energy during a change of state, they are pulled together by attractive forces and become more organized.

Answer:

A.Octet Rule

Explanation:

Because its orbital surface containes eight electrons

Answer:

Octet Rule

Explanation:

The octet rule talks about the tendency of atom to attain 8 electron in it outer shell. When an atom have fewer outer electrons than 8 they tend to easily react to form stable compounds. The atom that has it outer shell fully filled up are usually very stable and hardly go into a reaction. The octet rule is mostly involved with the s and p orbitals.

Noble gases like Neon and Argon have fully filled outer shell. The valency electron is 8. This fully filled valency shell is responsible for the stable nature of these noble gases. These noble gases find it hard to react with other elements. Example includes Neon and Argon which have atomic numbers of 10 and 18 respectively. The electronic configuration can be represented as follows:

Neon →  2 8

Argon → 2 8 8

Answer:

The spectator ions in this equation are :

CrO²⁻₄ and Ba²⁺

Explanation:

Spectator ions : These are the ions which are present in the solution but do not take part in chemical reaction.They are present as such in  both reactant as well as product .

In this reaction,

1.H+ and OH- are combined and converted into water (H2O) : Changed to H2O

So , H+ and OH- are not Spectator ions

2.CrO²⁻₄ and Ba²⁺ are unchanged . Present as such in product and reactants

CrO²⁻₄ and Ba²⁺are Spectator ions

The spectator ions in this equation are CrO²⁻₄ and Ba²⁺. Therefore, option D is correct.

The term an ionic equations are defined as the chemical equations that show only ions that participate in a chemical reaction. In other words, the ions that react together in solution and form new substances. The other ions that don't participate are called spectator ions.

Spectator ions are defined as the ions which are present in the solution but do not take part in chemical reaction.They are present as such in  both reactant and product .

In the given reaction,

1.H+ and OH- are mixed and converted into water (H2O)

So , H+ and OH- are not Spectator ions

2.CrO²⁻₄ and Ba²⁺ are unchanged . Present as such in product and reactants.

Therefore, CrO²⁻₄ and Ba²⁺ are Spectator ions

Thus, option D is correct.

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Final answer:

The Tragedy of the Commons, described by Garrett Hardin, highlights how individual actions based on self-interest can lead to the depletion of shared resources, exemplified by environmental issues like overfishing, deforestation, and air pollution. It underscores the conflict between individual interests and the common good.

Explanation:

The concept of the Tragedy of the Commons was introduced by Garrett Hardin in 1968 to describe a dilemma in which multiple individuals acting independently and rationally according to their own self-interest can ultimately deplete a shared limited resource, even when it is clear that it is not in anyone's long-term interest for this to happen. This concept applies to environmental issues such as overfishing, deforestation, and air pollution. Hardin's essay illustrates the conflict between individual interests and the common good, and the need for responsible resource management.

Examples today include the overuse of fisheries, forest areas, and the Earth's atmosphere as a dumping ground for greenhouse gases. The Tragedy of the Commons extends to various aspects of the environment, where the absence of restrictions leads to the over-exploitation of resources and environmental degradation. The predicament lies in the freedom of individuals to use common resources without considering the long-term effects and sustainability, potentially leading to the ruin of the resources for everyone.

Answer:

The molarity (M) of the following solutions are :

A. M = 0.88 M

B. M = 0.76 M

Explanation:

A. Molarity (M) of 19.2 g of Al(OH)3 dissolved in water to make 280 mL of solution.

Molar mass of Al(OH)3 = Mass of Al + 3(mass of O + mass of H)

                                      = 27 + 3(16 + 1)

                                      = 27 + 3(17) = 27 + 51

                                      = 78 g/mole

[tex]Al(OH)_3[/tex] = 78 g/mole

Given mass= 19.2 g/mole

[tex]Mole = \frac{Given\ mass}{Molar\ mass}[/tex]

[tex]Mole = \frac{19.2}{78}[/tex]

Moles = 0.246

[tex]Molarity = \frac{Moles\ of\ solute}{Volume\ of\ solution(L)}[/tex]

Volume = 280 mL = 0.280 L

[tex]Molarity = \frac{0.246}{0.280)}[/tex]

Molarity  = 0.879 M

Molarity  = 0.88 M

B .The molarity (M) of a 2.6 L solution made with 235.9 g of KBr​

Molar mass of KBr = 119 g/mole

Given mass = 235.9 g

[tex]Mole = \frac{235.9}{119}[/tex]

Moles = 1.98

Volume = 2.6 L

[tex]Molarity = \frac{Moles\ of\ solute}{Volume\ of\ solution(L)}[/tex]

[tex]Molarity = \frac{1.98}{2.6)}[/tex]

Molarity = 0.762 M

Molarity = 0.76 M

Answer:

Describe the sampling method for determining population size. The sampling method involves counting the total number of organisms in a certain area and then using that number to determine the total number of organisms in a larger area.

Explanation:

Answer:

Pentacarbon heptasilicide.

Explanation:

In order to name the following compound, we need to identify whether it is molecular or ionic.

Molecular compounds consist of non-metal atoms, while ionic compounds would have metal cations in their composition.

In the given compound, [tex]C_5Si_7[/tex], we have two non-metals, carbon and silicon, meaning we should follow the molecular compound naming rules. The rules involve using prefixes to state the number of individual atoms.

The two prefixes required here are 'penta' for 'five' to indicate 5 carbon atoms present and 'hepta' for 'seven' to indicate 7 silicon atoms present.

The first part of the name would be pentacarbon (notice that the standard name for the first element is used). The second part would be heptasilicide (notice that the second atom would have an ending of -ide followed by the standard beginning of silicon).

Answer:

Here's what I get  

Explanation:

Assume that the piston is weightless and frictionless and has an area of 0.01 m², and that the cylinder contains 0.001 m³ of air at 1 bar.

Then the gas is slowly heated, making the gas expand and force the piston up until the volume is 0.002 m³.

The gas is doing work, because it is pushing back against the pressure of the atmosphere in order to expand. The sign is negative, because of the thermodynamic convention that anything going out of the system is negative.

How much work has the gas done?

w = F × d, and

p = F/A, so

F = p × A. Then

w =p × A × d

A × d is the change in volume (ΔV) swept out by the piston as the gas expands. Thus

w = -pΔV (negative sign because of the convention)

= -1 × 10⁵ Pa × 0.001 m³ =-100 Pa·m³ = -100 J

The gas has done 100 J of work by expanding against an external pressure.

Answer:

actually the sign convention in physics and chem varies:

Explanation:

In chem , work done by the system (gas) is taken as negative.

Work done on the system (gas) is taken as positive.

this is because when the gas does work , its internal energy decreases and thus it looses energy upon doing work , so it is taken as negative.  

delta V is the change in volume.

P is the ext. pressure.

Now , to make it simple , when external pressure is applied to the gas , it gets compressed and thus it (gas) does work by exerting more pressure on the walls of the cylinder, which is why it is -P.

The oxidation number of sulfur in BaSO₄ is +6.

The oxidation number of sulfur in BaSO₄ can be calculated using the guidelines for assigning oxidation numbers.

Guideline 3 suggests that the oxidation number for oxygen is -2.

By using this oxidation number and the ion's formula, guideline 4 can be used to calculate the oxidation number for sulfur:

Let x be the oxidation number for sulfur.

Since there are 4 oxygen atoms in the compound, the sum of the oxidation numbers for the oxygen atoms is -8.

This means that x + (-8) = 0, which implies that x = +6.

Therefore, the oxidation number of sulfur in BaSO₄ is +6.

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The oxidation number of sulfur in BaSO₄ is +6.

The oxidation number of sulfur in BaSO₄ can be determined using the rules for assigning oxidation numbers and ensuring the sum of the oxidation numbers equals the charge on the molecule.

Here’s a step-by-step explanation:

          4 x (-2) = -8.

         (+2) + x + (-8) = 0.

Therefore, the oxidation number of sulfur in BaSO₄ is +6.

Using extension or flexible cords improperly

Explanation:

A client undergoing therapy in a whirlpool unit plugged into an extension cord demonstrates a wrong and improper use of extensions and flexible cords. This is not a safe way to connect an electrical circuit.

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Using an extension cord with a whirlpool unit for therapy is an example of poor safety practices due to potential voltage drop and compromised earthing, which could result in the appliance not operating properly and raise electrical safety concerns.

A client undergoing therapy in a whirlpool unit that has been connected to an extension cord may be an example of poor safety practices in a health care setting. The use of an extension cord for a high-powered appliance such as a whirlpool may result in a reduced power output, leading to the appliance not operating correctly. This is because the voltage drop across the extension cord can be large, which decreases the voltage at the appliance, therefore reducing its effectiveness. Moreover, earthing or grounding may be compromised, which is essential for the safety of electrical appliances to prevent electric shocks.

The situation of a client being in a whirlpool unit connected to an extension cord can raise concerns about adherence to safety protocols. It is important for health care providers to ensure that all electrical safety requirements are met, including proper installation and usage of all therapeutic equipment. Electrical appliances should be properly earthed, and any form of makeshift extension cord usage should be carefully evaluated and generally avoided.

The pH of pure water is neutral because the concentration of hydronium ions equals that of hydroxide ions.

Answer: Option A

Explanation:

Water is one of the most important constituents of living being. It is said that there is no life without water. So that water need to neutral in nature to save life. Pure water is composed of hydronium [tex]H^{+}[/tex] and hydroxide [tex]\left(O H^{-}\right)[/tex] ions. It is known that hydronium ions are acidic in nature with concentration of [tex]1 \times 10^{-7} \mathrm{M} / \mathrm{L}[/tex].

Similarly, the hydroxide ions which are basic in nature will be in same concentration as that of hydronium ions. So, as the concentration of basic and acidic elements are equal with the same strength of pH, the combination of these ions lead to formation of pure water with the pH being neutral.

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The correct answer would be option D

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They knew which substances could not be broken down by chemical means.

By definition, an element is the smallest part of a substance which has independent existence and can not be broken down by chemical means.

We must remember that the early chemists didn't have the luxury of the sophisticated equipment we have today many of which can literally "see through" a substance.

The had to depend on rather crude methods and instruments. Amidst all that, they still knew which substances could not be broken down by chemical means and those that could not. Those that could not be broken down by chemical means were labelled as elements and characterized.

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